The Power of Movement in Plants · Charles Darwin
CHAPTER IX. SENSITIVENESS OF PLANTS TO LIGHT: ITS TRANSMITTED EFFECTS.
Uses of heliotropism—Insectivorous and climbing plants not heliotropic—Same organ heliotropic at one age and not at another—Extraordinary sensitiveness of some plants to light—The effects of light do not correspond with its intensity—Effects of previous illumination—Time required for the action of light—After-effects of light—Apogeotropism acts as soon as light fails—Accuracy with which plants bend to the light—This dependent on the illumination of one whole side of the part—Localised sensitiveness to light and its transmitted effects—Cotyledons of Phalaris, manner of bending—Results of the exclusion of light from their tips—Effects transmitted beneath the surface of the ground—Lateral illumination of the tip determines the direction of the curvature of the base—Cotyledons of Avena, curvature of basal part due to the illumination of upper part—Similar results with the hypocotyls of Brassica and Beta—Radicles of Sinapis apheliotropic, due to the sensitiveness of their tips—Concluding remarks and summary of chapter—Means by which circumnutation has been converted into heliotropism or apheliotropism.
No one can look at the plants growing on a bank or on the borders of a thick wood, and doubt that the young stems and leaves place themselves so that the leaves may be well illuminated. They are thus enabled to decompose carbonic acid. But the sheath-like cotyledons of some Gramineæ, for instance, those of Phalaris, are not green and contain very little starch; from which fact we may infer that they decompose little or no carbonic acid. Nevertheless, they are extremely heliotropic; and this probably serves them in another way, namely, as a guide from the buried seeds through fissures in the ground or through overlying masses of vegetation, into the light and air. This view is strengthened by the fact that with Phalaris and Avena the first true leaf, which is bright green and no doubt decomposes carbonic acid, exhibits hardly a trace of heliotropism. The heliotropic movements of many other seedlings probably aid them in like manner in emerging from the ground; for apogeotropism by itself would blindly guide them upwards, against any overlying obstacle. Heliotropism prevails so extensively among the higher plants, that there are extremely few, of which some part, either the stem, flower-peduncle, petiole, or leaf, does not bend towards a lateral light. Drosera rotundifolia is one of the few plants the leaves of which exhibit no trace of heliotropism. Nor could we see any in Dionaea, though the plants were not so carefully observed. Sir J. Hooker exposed the pitchers of Sarracenia for some time to a lateral light, but they did not bend towards it.[1] We can understand the reason why these insectivorous plants should not be heliotropic, as they do not live chiefly by decomposing carbonic acid; and it is much more important to them that their leaves should occupy the best position for capturing insects, than that they should be fully exposed to the light.
As heliotropism is so widely prevalent, and as twining plants are distributed throughout the whole vascular series, the apparent absence of any tendency in their stems to bend towards the light, seemed to us so remarkable a fact as to deserve further investigation, for it implies that heliotropism can be readily eliminated. When twining plants are exposed to a lateral light, their stems go on revolving or circumnutating about the same spot, without any evident deflection towards the light; but we thought that we might detect some trace of heliotropism by comparing the average rate at which the stems moved to and from the light during their successive revolutions.[2] Three young plants (about a foot in height) of Ipomœa caerulea and four of I. purpurea, growing in separate pots, were placed on a bright day before a north-east window in a room otherwise darkened, with the tips of their revolving stems fronting the window. When the tip of each plant pointed directly from the window, and when again towards it, the times were recorded. This was continued from 6.45 A.M. till a little after 2 P.M. on June 17th. After a few observations we concluded that we could safely estimate the time taken by each semicircle, within a limit of error of at most 5 minutes.
Although the rate of movement in different parts of the same revolution varied greatly, yet 22 semicircles to the light were completed, each on an average in 73.95 minutes; and 22 semicircles from the light each in 73.5 minutes. It may, therefore, be said that they travelled to and from the light at exactly the same average rate; though probably the accuracy of the result was in part accidental. In the evening the stems were not in the least deflected towards the window. Nevertheless, there appears to exist a vestige of heliotropism, for with 6 out of the 7 plants, the first semicircle from the light, described in the early morning after they had been subjected to darkness during the night and thus probably rendered more sensitive, required rather more time, and the first semicircle to the light considerably less time, than the average. Thus with all 7 plants, taken together, the mean time of the first semicircle in the morning from the light, was 76.8 minutes, instead of 73.5 minutes, which is the mean of all the semicircles during the day from the light; and the mean of the first semicircle to the light was only 63.1, instead of 73.95 minutes, which was the mean of all the semicircles during the day to the light. [2] Some erroneous statements are unfortunately given on this subject, in ‘The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants,’ 1875, pp. 28, 32, 40, and 53. Conclusions were drawn from an insufficient number of observations, for we did not then know at how unequal a rate the stems and tendrils of climbing plants sometimes travel in different parts of the same revolution.
Similar observations were made on Wistaria Sinensis, and the mean of 9 semicircles from the light was 117 minutes, and of 7 semicircles to the light 122 minutes, and this difference does not exceed the probable limit of error. During the three days of exposure, the shoot did not become at all bent towards the window before which it stood. In this case the first semicircle from the light in the early morning of each day, required rather less time for its performance than did the first semicircle to the light; and this result, if not accidental, appears to indicate that the shoots retain a trace of an original apheliotropic tendency. With Lonicera brachypoda the semicircles from and to the light differed considerably in time; for 5 semicircles from the light required on a mean 202.4 minutes, and 4 to the light, 229.5 minutes; but the shoot moved very irregularly, and under these circumstances the observations were much too few.
It is remarkable that the same part on the same plant may be affected by light in a widely different manner at different ages, and as it appears at different seasons. The hypocotyledonous stems of Ipomœa caerulea and purpurea are extremely heliotropic, whilst the stems of older plants, only about a foot in height, are, as we have just seen, almost wholly insensible to light. Sachs states (and we have observed the same fact) that the hypocotyls of the Ivy (Hedera helix) are slightly heliotropic; whereas the stems of plants grown to a few inches in height become so strongly apheliotropic, that they bend at right angles away from the light. Nevertheless, some young plants which had behaved in this manner early in the summer again became distinctly heliotropic in the beginning of September; and the zigzag courses of their stems, as they slowly curved towards a north-east window, were traced during 10 days. The stems of very young plants of Tropaeolum majus are highly heliotropic, whilst those of older plants, according to Sachs, are slightly apheliotropic. In all these cases the heliotropism of the very young stems serves to expose the cotyledons, or when the cotyledons are hypogean the first true leaves, fully to the light; and the loss of this power by the older stems, or their becoming apheliotropic, is connected with their habit of climbing.
Most seedling plants are strongly heliotropic, and it is no doubt a great advantage to them in their struggle for life to expose their cotyledons to the light as quickly and as fully as possible, for the sake of obtaining carbon. It has been shown in the first chapter that the greater number of seedlings circumnutate largely and rapidly; and as heliotropism consists of modified circumnutation, we are tempted to look at the high development of these two powers in seedlings as intimately connected. Whether there are any plants which circumnutate slowly and to a small extent, and yet are highly heliotropic, we do not know; but there are several, and there is nothing surprising in this fact, which circumnutate largely and are not at all, or only slightly, heliotropic. Of such cases Drosera rotundifolia offers an excellent instance. The stolons of the strawberry circumnutate almost like the stems of climbing plants, and they are not at all affected by a moderate light; but when exposed late in the summer to a somewhat brighter light they were slightly heliotropic; in sunlight, according to De Vries, they are apheliotropic. Climbing plants circumnutate much more widely than any other plants, yet they are not at all heliotropic.
Although the stems of most seedling plants are strongly heliotropic, some few are but slightly heliotropic, without our being able to assign any reason. This is the case with the hypocotyl of Cassia tora, and we were struck with the same fact with some other seedlings, for instance, those of Reseda odorata. With respect to the degree of sensitiveness of the more sensitive kinds, it was shown in the last chapter that seedlings of several species, placed before a north-east window protected by several blinds, and exposed in the rear to the diffused light of the room, moved with unerring certainty towards the window, although it was impossible to judge, excepting by the shadow cast by an upright pencil on a white card, on which side most light entered, so that the excess on one side must have been extremely small.
A pot with seedlings of Phalaris Canariensis, which had been raised in darkness, was placed in a completely darkened room, at 12 feet from a very small lamp. After 3 h. the cotyledons were doubtfully curved towards the light, and after 7 h. 40 m. from the first exposure, they were all plainly, though slightly, curved towards the lamp. Now, at this distance of 12 feet, the light was so obscure that we could not see the seedlings themselves, nor read the large Roman figures on the white face of a watch, nor see a pencil line on paper, but could just distinguish a line made with Indian ink. It is a more surprising fact that no visible shadow was cast by a pencil held upright on a white card; the seedlings, therefore, were acted on by a difference in the illumination of their two sides, which the human eye could not distinguish. On another occasion even a less degree of light acted, for some cotyledons of Phalaris became slightly curved towards the same lamp at a distance of 20 feet; at this distance we could not see a circular dot 2.29 mm. (.09 inch) in diameter made with Indian ink on white paper, though we could just see a dot 3.56 mm. (.14 inch) in diameter; yet a dot of the former size appears large when seen in the light.[3]
A more severe trial was now made; little tubes of very thin glass, closed at their upper ends and coated with black varnish, were slipped over the cotyledons of Phalaris (which had germinated in darkness) and just fitted them. Narrow stripes of the varnish had been previously scraped off one side, through which alone light could enter; and their dimensions were afterwards measured under the microscope. As a control experiment, similar unvarnished and transparent tubes were tried, and they did not prevent the cotyledons bending towards the light. Two cotyledons were placed before a south-west window, one of which was illuminated by a stripe in the varnish, only .004 inch (0.1 mm.) in breadth and .016 inch (0.4 mm.) in length; and the other by a stripe .008 inch in breadth and .06 inch in length. The seedlings were examined after an exposure of 7 h. 40 m., and were found to be manifestly bowed towards the light. Some other cotyledons were at the same time treated similarly, excepting that the little stripes were directed not to the sky, but in such a manner that they received only the diffused light from the room; and these cotyledons did not become at all bowed. Seven other cotyledons were illuminated through narrow, but comparatively long, cleared stripes in the varnish—namely, in breadth between .01 and .026 inch, and in length between .15 and .3 inch; and these all became bowed to the side, by which light entered through the stripes, whether these were directed towards the sky or to one side of the room. That light passing through a hole only .004 inch in breadth by .016 in length, should induce curvature, seems to us a surprising fact.
Before we knew how extremely sensitive the cotyledons of Phalaris were to light, we endeavoured to trace their circumnutation in darkness by the aid of a small wax taper, held for a minute or two at each observation in nearly the same position, a little on the left side in front of the vertical glass on which the tracing was made. The seedlings were thus observed seventeen times in the course of the day, at intervals of from half to three-quarters of an hour; and late in the evening we were surprised to find that all the 29 cotyledons were greatly curved and pointed towards the vertical glass, a little to the left where the taper had been held. The tracings showed that they had travelled in zigzag lines. Thus, an exposure to a feeble light for a very short time at the above specified intervals, sufficed to induce well-marked heliotropism. An analogous case was observed with the hypocotyls of Solanum lycopersicum. We at first attributed this result to the after-effects of the light on each occasion; but since reading Wiesner’s observations,[4] which will be referred to in the last chapter, we cannot doubt that an intermittent light is more efficacious than a continuous one, as plants are especially sensitive to any contrast in its amount. [4] ‘Sitz. der k. Akad. der Wissensch.’ (Vienna), Jan. 1880, p. 12.
The cotyledons of Phalaris bend much more slowly towards a very obscure light than towards a bright one. Thus, in the experiments with seedlings placed in a dark room at 12 feet from a very small lamp, they were just perceptibly and doubtfully curved towards it after 3 h., and only slightly, yet certainly, after 4 h. After 8 h. 40 m. the chords of their arcs were deflected from the perpendicular by an average angle of only 16°. Had the light been bright, they would have become much more curved in between 1 and 2 h. Several trials were made with seedlings placed at various distances from a small lamp in a dark room; but we will give only one trial. Six pots were placed at distances of 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 feet from the lamp, before which they were left for 4 h. As light decreases in a geometrical ratio, the seedlings in the 2nd pot received 1/4th, those in the 3rd pot 1/16th, those in the 4th 1/36th, those in the 5th 1/64th, and those in the 6th 1/100th of the light received by the seedlings in the first or nearest pot.
Therefore it might have been expected that there would have been an immense difference in the degree of their heliotropic curvature in the several pots; and there was a well-marked difference between those which stood nearest and furthest from the lamp, but the difference in each successive pair of pots was extremely small. In order to avoid prejudice, we asked three persons, who knew nothing about the experiment, to arrange the pots in order according to the degree of curvature of the cotyledons. The first person arranged them in proper order, but doubted long between the 12 feet and 16 feet pots; yet these two received light in the proportion of 36 to 64. The second person also arranged them properly, but doubted between the 8 feet and 12 feet pots, which received light in the proportion of 16 to 36. The third person arranged them in wrong order, and doubted about four of the pots. This evidence shows conclusively how little the curvature of the seedlings differed in the successive pots, in comparison with the great difference in the amount of light which they received; and it should be noted that there was no excess of superfluous light, for the cotyledons became but little and slowly curved even in the nearest pot. Close to the 6th pot, at the distance of 20 feet from the lamp, the light allowed us just to distinguish a dot 3.56 mm. (.14 inch) in diameter, made with Indian ink on white paper, but not a dot 2.29 mm. (.09 inch) in diameter.
The degree of curvature of the cotyledons of Phalaris within a given time, depends not merely on the amount of lateral light which they may then receive, but on that which they have previously received from above and on all sides. Analogous facts have been given with respect to the nyctitropic and periodic movements of plants. Of two pots containing seedlings of Phalaris which had germinated in darkness, one was still kept in the dark, and the other was exposed (Sept. 26th) to the light in a greenhouse during a cloudy day and on the following bright morning. On this morning (27th), at 10.30 A.M., both pots were placed in a box, blackened within and open in front, before a north-east window, protected by a linen and muslin blind and by a towel, so that but little light was admitted, though the sky was bright. Whenever the pots were looked at, this was done as quickly as possible, and the cotyledons were then held transversely with respect to the light, so that their curvature could not have been thus increased or diminished. After 50 m. the seedlings which had previously been kept in darkness, were perhaps, and after 70 m. were certainly, curved, though very slightly, towards the window.
After 85 m. some of the seedlings, which had previously been illuminated, were perhaps a little affected, and after 100 m. some of the younger ones were certainly a little curved towards the light. At this time (i.e. after 100 m.) there was a plain difference in the curvature of the seedlings in the two pots. After 2 h. 12 m. the chords of the arcs of four of the most strongly curved seedlings in each pot were measured, and the mean angle from the perpendicular of those which had previously been kept in darkness was 19°, and of those which had previously been illuminated only 7°. Nor did this difference diminish during two additional hours. As a check, the seedlings in both pots were then placed in complete darkness for two hours, in order that apogeotropism should act on them; and those in the one pot which were little curved became in this time almost completely upright, whilst the more curved ones in the other pot still remained plainly curved.
Two days afterwards the experiment was repeated, with the sole difference that even less light was admitted through the window, as it was protected by a linen and muslin blind and by two towels; the sky, moreover, was somewhat less bright. The result was the same as before, excepting that everything occurred rather slower. The seedlings which had been previously kept in darkness were not in the least curved after 54 m., but were so after 70 m. Those which had previously been illuminated were not at all affected until 130 m. had elapsed, and then only slightly. After 145 m. some of the seedlings in this latter pot were certainly curved towards the light; and there was now a plain difference between the two pots. After 3 h. 45 m. the chords of the arcs of 3 seedlings in each pot were measured, and the mean angle from the perpendicular was 16° for those in the pot which had previously been kept in darkness, and only 5° for those which had previously been illuminated. The curvature of the cotyledons of Phalaris towards a lateral light is therefore certainly influenced by the degree to which they have been previously illuminated. We shall presently see that the influence of light on their bending continues for a short time after the light has been extinguished. These facts, as well as that of the curvature not increasing or decreasing in nearly the same ratio with that of the amount of light which they receive, as shown in the trials with the plants before the lamp, all indicate that light acts on them as a stimulus, in somewhat the same manner as on the nervous system of animals, and not in a direct manner on the cells or cell-walls which by their contraction or expansion cause the curvature.
It has already been incidentally shown how slowly the cotyledons of Phalaris bend towards a very dim light; but when they were placed before a bright paraffin lamp their tips were all curved rectangularly towards it in 2 h. 20 m. The hypocotyls of Solanum lycopersicum had bent in the morning at right angles towards a north-east window. At 1 P.M. (Oct. 21st) the pot was turned round, so that the seedlings now pointed from the light, but by 5 P.M. they had reversed their curvature and again pointed to the light. They had thus passed through 180° in 4 h., having in the morning previously passed through about 90°. But the reversal of the first half of the curvature will have been aided by apogeotropism. Similar cases were observed with other seedlings, for instance, with those of Sinapis alba.
We attempted to ascertain in how short a time light acted on the cotyledons of Phalaris, but this was difficult on account of their rapid circumnutating movement; moreover, they differ much in sensibility, according to age; nevertheless, some of our observations are worth giving. Pots with seedlings were placed under a microscope provided with an eye-piece micrometer, of which each division equalled 1/500th of an inch (0.051 mm.); and they were at first illuminated by light from a paraffin lamp passing through a solution of bichromate of potassium, which does not induce heliotropism. Thus the direction in which the cotyledons were circumnutating could be observed independently of any action from the light; and they could be made, by turning round the pots, to circumnutate transversely to the line in which the light would strike them, as soon as the solution was removed. The fact that the direction of the circumnutating movement might change at any moment, and thus the plant might bend either towards or from the lamp independently of the action of the light, gave an element of uncertainty to the results. After the solution had been removed, five seedlings which were circumnutating transversely to the line of light, began to move towards it, in 6, 4, 7½, 6, and 9 minutes.
In one of these cases, the apex of the cotyledon crossed five of the divisions of the micrometer (i.e. 1/100th of an inch, or 0.254 mm.) towards the light in 3 m. Of two seedlings which were moving directly from the light at the time when the solution was removed, one began to move towards it in 13 m., and the other in 15 m. This latter seedling was observed for more than an hour and continued to move towards the light; it crossed at one time 5 divisions of the micrometer (0.254 mm.) in 2 m. 30 s. In all these cases, the movement towards the light was extremely unequal in rate, and the cotyledons often remained almost stationary for some minutes, and two of them retrograded a little. Another seedling which was circumnutating transversely to the line of light, moved towards it in 4 m. after the solution was removed; it then remained almost stationary for 10 m.; then crossed 5 divisions of the micrometer in 6 m.; and then 8 divisions in 11m. This unequal rate of movement, interrupted by pauses, and at first with occasional retrogressions, accords well with our conclusion that heliotropism consists of modified circumnutation.
Text from Project Gutenberg, public domain in the United States.