The Power of Movement in Plants · Charles Darwin
CHAPTER XII. CONCLUDING REMARKS.
We now come to our second group of circumnutating movements—those modified through external agencies. The so-called sleep or nyctitropic movements of leaves are determined by the daily alternations of light and darkness. It is not the darkness which excites them to move, but the difference in the amount of light which they receive during the day and night; for with several species, if the leaves have not been brightly illuminated during the day, they do not sleep at night. They inherit, however, some tendency to move at the proper periods, independently of any change in the amount of light. The movements are in some cases extraordinarily complex, but as a full summary has been given in the chapter devoted to this subject, we will here say but little on this head. Leaves and cotyledons assume their nocturnal position by two means, by the aid of pulvini and without such aid. In the former case the movement continues as long as the leaf or cotyledon remains in full health; whilst in the latter case it continues only whilst the part is growing. Cotyledons appear to sleep in a larger proportional number of species than do leaves. In some species, the leaves sleep and not the cotyledons; in others, the cotyledons and not the leaves; or both may sleep, and yet assume widely different positions at night.
Although the nyctitropic movements of leaves and cotyledons are wonderfully diversified, and sometimes differ much in the species of the same genus, yet the blade is always placed in such a position at night, that its upper surface is exposed as little as possible to full radiation. We cannot doubt that this is the object gained by these movements; and it has been proved that leaves exposed to a clear sky, with their blades compelled to remain horizontal, suffered much more from the cold than others which were allowed to assume their proper vertical position. Some curious facts have been given under this head, showing that horizontally extended leaves suffered more at night, when the air, which is not cooled by radiation, was prevented from freely circulating beneath their lower surfaces; and so it was, when the leaves were allowed to go to sleep on branches which had been rendered motionless. In some species the petioles rise up greatly at night, and the pinnae close together. The whole plant is thus rendered more compact, and a much smaller surface is exposed to radiation.
That the various nyctitropic movements of leaves result from modified circumnutation has, we think, been clearly shown. In the simplest cases a leaf describes a single large ellipse during the 24 h.; and the movement is so arranged that the blade stands vertically during the night, and reassumes its former position on the following morning. The course pursued differs from ordinary circumnutation only in its greater amplitude, and in its greater rapidity late in the evening and early on the following morning. Unless this movement is admitted to be one of circumnutation, such leaves do not circumnutate at all, and this would be a monstrous anomaly. In other cases, leaves and cotyledons describe several vertical ellipses during the 24 h.; and in the evening one of them is increased greatly in amplitude until the blade stands vertically either upwards or downwards. In this position it continues to circumnutate until the following morning, when it reassumes its former position. These movements, when a pulvinus is present, are often complicated by the rotation of the leaf or leaflet; and such rotation on a small scale occurs during ordinary circumnutation. The many diagrams showing the movements of sleeping and non-sleeping leaves and cotyledons should be compared, and it will be seen that they are essentially alike. Ordinary circumnutation is converted into a nyctitropic movement, firstly by an increase in its amplitude, but not to so great a degree as in the case of climbing plants, and secondly by its being rendered periodic in relation to the alternations of day and night. But there is frequently a distinct trace of periodicity in the circumnutating movements of non-sleeping leaves and cotyledons. The fact that nyctitropic movements occur in species distributed in many families throughout the whole vascular series, is intelligible, if they result from the modification of the universally present movement of circumnutation; otherwise the fact is inexplicable.
In the seventh chapter we have given the case of a Porlieria, the leaflets of which remained closed all day, as if asleep, when the plant was kept dry, apparently for the sake of checking evaporation. Something of the same kind occurs with certain Gramineæ. At the close of this same chapter, a few observations were appended on what may be called the embryology of leaves. The leaves produced by young shoots on cut-down plants of Melilotus Taurica slept like those of a Trifolium, whilst the leaves on the older branches on the same plants slept in a very different manner, proper to the genus; and from the reasons assigned we are tempted to look at this case as one of reversion to a former nyctitropic habit. So again with Desmodium gyrans, the absence of small lateral leaflets on very young plants, makes us suspect that the immediate progenitor of this species did not possess lateral leaflets, and that their appearance in an almost rudimentary condition at a somewhat more advanced age is the result of reversion to a trifoliate predecessor. However this may be, the rapid circumnutating or gyrating movements of the little lateral leaflets, seem to be due proximately to the pulvinus, or organ of movement, not having been reduced nearly so much as the blade, during the successive modifications through which the species has passed.
We now come to the highly important class of movements due to the action of a lateral light. When stems, leaves, or other organs are placed, so that one side is illuminated more brightly than the other, they bend towards the light. This heliotropic movement manifestly results from the modification of ordinary circumnutation; and every gradation between the two movements could be followed. When the light was dim, and only a very little brighter on one side than on the other, the movement consisted of a succession of ellipses, directed towards the light, each of which approached nearer to its source than the previous one. When the difference in the light on the two sides was somewhat greater, the ellipses were drawn out into a strongly-marked zigzag line, and when much greater the course became rectilinear. We have reason to believe that changes in the turgescence of the cells is the proximate cause of the movement of circumnutation; and it appears that when a plant is unequally illuminated on the two sides, the always changing turgescence is augmented along one side, and is weakened or quite arrested along the other sides. Increased turgescence is commonly followed by increased growth, so that a plant which has bent itself towards the light during the day would be fixed in this position were it not for apogeotropism acting during the night. But parts provided with pulvini bend, as Pfeffer has shown, towards the light; and here growth does not come into play any more than in the ordinary circumnutating movements of pulvini.
Heliotropism prevails widely throughout the vegetable kingdom, but whenever, from the changed habits of life of any plant, such movements become injurious or useless, the tendency is easily eliminated, as we see with climbing and insectivorous plants. Apheliotropic movements are comparatively rare in a well-marked degree, excepting with sub-aërial roots. In the two cases investigated by us, the movement certainly consisted of modified circumnutation. The position which leaves and cotyledons occupy during the day, namely, more or less transversely to the direction of the light, is due, according to Frank, to what we call diaheliotropism. As all leaves and cotyledons are continually circumnutating, there can hardly be a doubt that diaheliotropism results from modified circumnutation. From the fact of leaves and cotyledons frequently rising a little in the evening, it appears as if diaheliotropism had to conquer during the middle of the day a widely prevalent tendency to apogeotropism. Lastly, the leaflets and cotyledons of some plants are known to be injured by too much light; and when the sun shines brightly on them, they move upwards or downwards, or twist laterally, so that they direct their edges towards the light, and thus they escape being injured. These paraheliotropic movements certainly consisted in one case of modified circumnutation; and so it probably is in all cases, for the leaves of all the species described circumnutate in a conspicuous manner. This movement has hitherto been observed only with leaflets provided with pulvini, in which the increased turgescence on opposite sides is not followed by growth; and we can understand why this should be so, as the movement is required only for a temporary purpose. It would manifestly be disadvantageous for the leaf to be fixed by growth in its inclined position. For it has to assume its former horizontal position, as soon as possible after the sun has ceased shining too brightly on it.
The extreme sensitiveness of certain seedlings to light, as shown in our ninth chapter, is highly remarkable. The cotyledons of Phalaris became curved towards a distant lamp, which emitted so little light, that a pencil held vertically close to the plants, did not cast any shadow which the eye could perceive on a white card. These cotyledons, therefore, were affected by a difference in the amount of light on their two sides, which the eye could not distinguish. The degree of their curvature within a given time towards a lateral light did not correspond at all strictly with the amount of light which they received; the light not being at any time in excess. They continued for nearly half an hour to bend towards a lateral light, after it had been extinguished. They bend with remarkable precision towards it, and this depends on the illumination of one whole side, or on the obscuration of the whole opposite side. The difference in the amount of light which plants at any time receive in comparison with what they have shortly before received, seems in all cases to be the chief exciting cause of those movements which are influenced by light. Thus seedlings brought out of darkness bend towards a dim lateral light, sooner than others which had previously been exposed to daylight. We have seen several analogous cases with the nyctitropic movements of leaves. A striking instance was observed in the case of the periodic movements of the cotyledons of a Cassia; in the morning a pot was placed in an obscure part of a room, and all the cotyledons rose up closed; another pot had stood in the sunlight, and the cotyledons of course remained expanded; both pots were now placed close together in the middle of the room, and the cotyledons which had been exposed to the sun, immediately began to close, while the others opened; so that the cotyledons in the two pots moved in exactly opposite directions whilst exposed to the same degree of light.
We found that if seedlings, kept in a dark place, were laterally illuminated by a small wax taper for only two or three minutes at intervals of about three-quarters of an hour, they all became bowed to the point where the taper had been held. We felt much surprised at this fact, and until we had read Wiesner’s observations, we attributed it to the after-effects of the light; but he has shown that the same degree of curvature in a plant may be induced in the course of an hour by several interrupted illuminations lasting altogether for 20 m., as by a continuous illumination of 60 m. We believe that this case, as well as our own, may be explained by the excitement from light being due not so much to its actual amount, as to the difference in amount from that previously received; and in our case there were repeated alternations from complete darkness to light. In this, and in several of the above specified respects, light seems to act on the tissues of plants, almost in the same manner as it does on the nervous system of animals.
There is a much more striking analogy of the same kind, in the sensitiveness to light being localised in the tips of the cotyledons of Phalaris and Avena, and in the upper part of the hypocotyls of Brassica and Beta; and in the transmission of some influence from these upper to the lower parts, causing the latter to bend towards the light. This influence is also transmitted beneath the soil to a depth where no light enters. It follows from this localisation, that the lower parts of the cotyledons of Phalaris, etc., which normally become more bent towards a lateral light than the upper parts, may be brightly illuminated during many hours, and will not bend in the least, if all light be excluded from the tip. It is an interesting experiment to place caps over the tips of the cotyledons of Phalaris, and to allow a very little light to enter through minute orifices on one side of the caps, for the lower part of the cotyledons will then bend to this side, and not to the side which has been brightly illuminated during the whole time. In the case of the radicles of Sinapis alba, sensitiveness to light also resides in the tip, which, when laterally illuminated, causes the adjoining part of the root to bend apheliotropically. Gravitation excites plants to bend away from the centre of the earth, or towards it, or to place themselves in a transverse position with respect to it. Although it is impossible to modify in any direct manner the attraction of gravity, yet its influence could be moderated indirectly, in the several ways described in the tenth chapter; and under such circumstances the same kind of evidence as that given in the chapter on Heliotropism, showed in the plainest manner that apogeotropic and geotropic, and probably diageotropic movements, are all modified forms of circumnutation.
Different parts of the same plant and different species are affected by gravitation in widely different degrees and manners. Some plants and organs exhibit hardly a trace of its action. Young seedlings which, as we know, circumnutate rapidly, are eminently sensitive; and we have seen the hypocotyl of Beta bending upwards through 109° in 3 h. 8 m. The after-effects of apogeotropism last for above half an hour; and horizontally-laid hypocotyls are sometimes thus carried temporarily beyond an upright position. The benefits derived from geotropism, apogeotropism, and diageotropism, are generally so manifest that they need not be specified. With the flower-peduncles of Oxalis, epinasty causes them to bend down, so that the ripening pods may be protected by the calyx from the rain. Afterwards they are carried upwards by apogeotropism in combination with hyponasty, and are thus enabled to scatter their seeds over a wider space. The capsules and flower-heads of some plants are bowed downwards through geotropism, and they then bury themselves in the earth for the protection and slow maturation of the seeds. This burying process is much facilitated by the rocking movement due to circumnutation.
In the case of the radicles of several, probably of all seedling plants, sensitiveness to gravitation is confined to the tip, which transmits an influence to the adjoining upper part, causing it to bend towards the centre of the earth. That there is transmission of this kind was proved in an interesting manner when horizontally extended radicles of the bean were exposed to the attraction of gravity for 1 or 1½ h., and their tips were then amputated. Within this time no trace of curvature was exhibited, and the radicles were now placed pointing vertically downwards; but an influence had already been transmitted from the tip to the adjoining part, for it soon became bent to one side, in the same manner as would have occurred had the radicle remained horizontal and been still acted on by geotropism. Radicles thus treated continued to grow out horizontally for two or three days, until a new tip was re-formed; and this was then acted on by geotropism, and the radicle became curved perpendicularly downwards.
It has now been shown that the following important classes of movement all arise from modified circumnutation, which is omnipresent whilst growth lasts, and after growth has ceased, whenever pulvini are present. These classes of movement consist of those due to epinasty and hyponasty,—those proper to climbing plants, commonly called revolving nutation,—the nyctitropic or sleep movements of leaves and cotyledons,—and the two immense classes of movement excited by light and gravitation. When we speak of modified circumnutation we mean that light, or the alternations of light and darkness, gravitation, slight pressure or other irritants, and certain innate or constitutional states of the plant, do not directly cause the movement; they merely lead to a temporary increase or diminution of those spontaneous changes in the turgescence of the cells which are already in progress. In what manner, light, gravitation, etc., act on the cells is not known; and we will here only remark that, if any stimulus affected the cells in such a manner as to cause some slight tendency in the affected part to bend in a beneficial manner, this tendency might easily be increased through the preservation of the more sensitive individuals. But if such bending were injurious, the tendency would be eliminated unless it was overpoweringly strong; for we know how commonly all characters in all organisms vary. Nor can we see any reason to doubt, that after the complete elimination of a tendency to bend in some one direction under a certain stimulus, the power to bend in a directly opposite direction might gradually be acquired through natural selection.[2]
Finally it is impossible not to be struck with the resemblance between the foregoing movements of plants and many of the actions performed unconsciously by the lower animals.[4] With plants an astonishingly small stimulus suffices; and even with allied plants one may be highly sensitive to the slightest continued pressure, and another highly sensitive to a slight momentary touch. The habit of moving at certain periods is inherited both by plants and animals; and several other points of similitude have been specified. But the most striking resemblance is the localisation of their sensitiveness, and the transmission of an influence from the excited part to another which consequently moves. Yet plants do not of course possess nerves or a central nervous system; and we may infer that with animals such structures serve only for the more perfect transmission of impressions, and for the more complete intercommunication of the several parts. [4] Sachs remarks to nearly the same effect: “Dass sich die lebende Pflanzensubstanz derart innerlich differenzirt, dass einzelne Theile mit specifischen Energien ausgerüstet sind, ähnlich, wie die verschiedenen Sinnesnerven des Thiere” (‘Arbeiten des Bot. Inst. in Würzburg,’ Bd. ii. 1879, p. 282).
We believe that there is no structure in plants more wonderful, as far as its functions are concerned, than the tip of the radicle. If the tip be lightly pressed or burnt or cut, it transmits an influence to the upper adjoining part, causing it to bend away from the affected side; and, what is more surprising, the tip can distinguish between a slightly harder and softer object, by which it is simultaneously pressed on opposite sides. If, however, the radicle is pressed by a similar object a little above the tip, the pressed part does not transmit any influence to the more distant parts, but bends abruptly towards the object. If the tip perceives the air to be moister on one side than on the other, it likewise transmits an influence to the upper adjoining part, which bends towards the source of moisture. When the tip is excited by light (though in the case of radicles this was ascertained in only a single instance) the adjoining part bends from the light; but when excited by gravitation the same part bends towards the centre of gravity. In almost every case we can clearly perceive the final purpose or advantage of the several movements. Two, or perhaps more, of the exciting causes often act simultaneously on the tip, and one conquers the other, no doubt in accordance with its importance for the life of the plant. The course pursued by the radicle in penetrating the ground must be determined by the tip; hence it has acquired such diverse kinds of sensitiveness. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle thus endowed, and having the power of directing the movements of the adjoining parts, acts like the brain of one of the lower animals; the brain being seated within the anterior end of the body, receiving impressions from the sense-organs, and directing the several movements.
Text from Project Gutenberg, public domain in the United States.