The Sayings of Confucius A New Translation of the Greater Part of the Confucian Analects · Confucius
INDIVIDUAL VIRTUE
The Master said: Is he not a princely man[1]--he who is never vexed that others know him not? True virtue[2] rarely goes with artful speech and insinuating looks. At home, a young man should show the qualities of a son; abroad, those of a younger brother. He should be circumspect but truthful. He should have charity in his heart for all men, but associate only with the virtuous. After thus regulating his conduct, his surplus energy should be devoted to literary culture. In the matter of food and lodging, the nobler type of man does not seek mere repletion and comfort. He is earnest in his affairs and cautious in his speech, and frequents virtuous company for his own improvement. He may be called one truly bent on the study of virtue.[3] Mêng I Tzŭ[4] asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said: It consists in there being no falling off.[5]--Fan Ch‘ih was driving the Master's carriage some time after, when the latter told him, saying: Mêng I Tzŭ asked me about filial piety, and I answered that it consisted in there being no falling off.--Fan Ch'ih said: What did you mean?--The Master replied: That parents should be served in the proper spirit while living, buried with the proper rites after death, and worshipped thereafter with the proper sacrifices.
Mêng Wu Po[6] asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said: There is filial piety when parents are spared all anxiety about their children except when they happen to fall sick.[7] Tzŭ Yu put a question on the subject of filial piety. The Master said: The filial piety of to-day reduces itself to the mere question of maintenance. Yet this is something in which even our dogs and horses have a share.[8] Without the feeling of reverence, what is there to distinguish the two cases? Tzŭ Hsia also asked about filial piety. The Master said: It can hardly be gauged from mere outward acts.[9] When there is work to be done, to relieve one's elders of the toil; or when there is wine and food, to cause them to partake thereof--is _this_ to be reckoned filial piety?[10] Tzŭ Kung inquired about the higher type of man. The Master replied: The higher type of man is one who acts before he speaks, and professes only what he practises. The Master said: The higher type of man is catholic in his sympathy and free from party bias; the lower type of man is biassed and un-sympathetic. A man without charity in his heart--what has he to do with ceremonies? A man without charity in his heart--what has he to do with music?[11]
Lin Fang inquired as to the prime essential in ceremonial observances. The Master said: Ah, that is a great question indeed! In all rites, simplicity is better than extravagance; in mourning for the dead, heartfelt sorrow is better than punctiliousness. The Master said: The true gentleman is never contentious. If a spirit of rivalry is anywhere unavoidable, it is at a shooting-match. Yet even here he courteously salutes his opponents before taking up his position, and again when, having lost, he retires to drink the forfeit-cup. So that even when competing he remains a true gentleman. It is the spirit of charity which makes a locality good to dwell in. He who selects a neighbourhood without regard to this quality cannot be considered wise. Only he who has the spirit of goodness within him is really able either to love or to hate. The princely man never for a single instant quits the path of virtue; in times of storm and stress he remains in it as fast as ever. The nobler sort of man in his progress through the world has neither narrow predilections nor obstinate antipathies. What he follows is the line of duty. The nobler sort of man is proficient in the knowledge of his duty; the inferior man is proficient only in money-making. In serving his father and mother, a son may use gentle remonstrance; if he sees that they pay no heed, he should not desist, but merely increase in deference; if his pains are thrown away, he must show no resentment.
While one's parents are alive, one should not travel to a distance; if one must travel, it should be in a fixed direction.[12] The age of one's parents should always be kept in mind--on the one hand, as a subject for rejoicing; on the other, as a cause for alarm. The wise man will be slow to speak but quick to act. Tzŭ Chang asked, saying: The Prime Minister Tzŭ Wên[13] held office three times, but showed no joy; he lost it three times, but testified no concern. When he ceased to be Prime Minister, he was careful to explain the political situation to his successor. What is your opinion of him?-- The Master said: He was loyal and conscientious.[14]--Had he not the highest degree of moral virtue?--That I do not know; how can one judge of his moral virtue?--Tzŭ Chang continued: When Ts‘ui Tzŭ[15] slew the Prince of Ch‘i, Ch‘ên Wên Tzŭ, though the possessor of ten teams of war-horses, forsook his wealth and turned his back on the country. Having come to another state, he said: "Here they are as bad as our own minister Ts‘ui Tzŭ," and departed. And he repeated this proceeding each time that he came to a new state.[16] What is your opinion of him?--The Master said: He was pure and incorruptible.--Had he not the highest degree of virtue?--I cannot say; how is one to judge?
The Master said: When the solid outweighs the ornamental, we have boorishness; when the ornamental outweighs the solid, we have superficial smartness. Only from a proper blending of the two will the higher type of man emerge. All men are born good. He who loses his goodness and yet lives is lucky to escape. Better than one who knows what is right is one who is fond of what is right; and better than one who is fond of what is right is one who delights in what is right. Fan Ch‘ih asked in what wisdom consisted. The Master said: Make righteousness in human affairs your aim, treat all supernatural beings with respect, but keep aloof from them--then you may be called wise. Asked about moral virtue, he replied: The virtuous man thinks of the difficult thing[17] first, and makes material advantage only a secondary consideration. This may be said to constitute moral virtue. The Master said: The man of knowledge finds pleasure in the sea, the man of virtue finds pleasure in the mountains.[18] For the man of knowledge is restless and the man of virtue is calm. The man of knowledge is happy, and the man of virtue is long-lived. The higher type of man, having gathered wide objective knowledge from the branches of polite learning, will regulate the whole by the inner rule of conduct,[19] and will thus avoid overstepping the limit.
That virtue is perfect which adheres to a constant mean. It has long been rare amongst men. Tzŭ Kung asked: What would you say of the man who conferred benefits far and wide on the people and was able to be the salvation of all? Would you pronounce him a man of moral virtue?--Of moral virtue? said the Master. Nay, rather, of divine virtue.[20] Even Yao and Shun were still striving to attain this height. The man of moral virtue, wishing to stand firm himself, will lend firmness unto others; wishing himself to be illuminated, he will illuminate others. To be able to do to others as we would be done by[21]--this is the true domain of moral virtue. It has not been my lot to see a divine man; could I see a princely man, that would satisfy me. It has not been my lot to see a thoroughly virtuous man; could I see a man possessing honesty of soul, that would satisfy me. Is it possible there should be honesty of soul in one who pretends to have what he has not; who, when empty, pretends to be overflowing; who, when in want, pretends to be in affluence? The higher type of man is calm and serene; the inferior man is constantly agitated and worried. With sincerity and truth unite a desire for self-culture. Lay down your life rather than quit the path of virtue. Enter not the state which is tottering to its fall. Abide not in the state where sedition is rampant. When law obtains in the Empire, let yourself be seen; when lawlessness reigns, retire into obscurity. In a state governed on right principles, poverty and low station are things to be ashamed of; in an ill-governed state, riches and rank are things to be ashamed of.
The man of wisdom does not vacillate; the man of natural goodness does not fret; the man of valour does not fear. Yen Yüan inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master said: The subdual of self, and reversion to the natural laws governing conduct--this is true goodness. If a man can for the space of one day subdue his selfishness and revert to natural laws, the whole world will call him good. True goodness springs from a man's own heart. How can it depend on other men?--Yen Yüan said: Kindly tell me the practical rule to be deduced from this.--The Master replied: Do not use your eyes, your ears, your power of speech or your faculty of movement without obeying the inner law of self-control.[22]--Yen Yüan said: Though I am not quick in thought or act, I will make it my business to carry out this precept. Chung Kung inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master said: When out of doors, behave as though you were entertaining a distinguished guest; in ruling the people, behave as though you were officiating at a solemn sacrifice; what you would not wish done to yourself, do not unto others.[23] Then in public as in private life you will excite no ill-will. Chung Kung said: Though I am not quick in thought or act, I will make it my business to carry out this precept.
Ssŭ-ma Niu inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master said: The truly good man is slow of speech.[24]--Slowness of speech! Is this what goodness consists in?--The Master said: Does not the difficulty of deciding what it is right to _do_ necessarily imply slowness to _speak_? Ssŭ-ma Niu asked for a definition of the princely man. The Master said: The princely man is one who knows neither grief nor fear.--Absence of grief and fear! Is this the mark of a princely man?--The Master said: If on searching his heart he finds no guilt, why should he grieve? of what should he be afraid? Tzŭ Chang asked how to attain exalted virtue. ... The Master said: Make conscientiousness and truth your guiding principles, and thus pass on to the cultivation of duty to your neighbour. This is exalted virtue. The Master said: The nobler sort of man emphasises the good qualities in others, and does not accentuate the bad. The inferior sort does the reverse. Tzŭ Chang asked: What must a man do in order to be considered distinguished?--The Master said: What do you mean by the term "distinguished"?--Tzŭ Chang replied: I mean one whose fame fills both his own private circle and the State at large.--The Master said: That is notoriety, not distinction. The man of true distinction is simple, honest, and a lover of justice and duty. He weighs men's words, and observes the expression of their faces.[25] He is anxious to put himself below others. Such a one is truly distinguished in his private and his public life. As to the man who is merely much talked about, he puts on an appearance of charity and benevolence, but his actions belie it. He is self-satisfied and has no misgivings. Neither in private nor in public life does he achieve more than notoriety.
Tzŭ Kung asked a question about friendship. The Master said: Be conscientious in speaking to your friend, but tactful in your efforts to guide him aright. If these fail, stop. Do not court a personal rebuff. The Duke of Shê addressed Confucius, saying: We have an upright man in our country. His father stole a sheep, and the son bore witness against him.--In our country, Confucius replied, uprightness is something different from this. A father hides the guilt of his son, and a son hides the guilt of his father. It is in such conduct that true uprightness is to be found. Fan Ch‘ih asked a question about moral virtue. The Master said: In private life, show self-respect; in the management of affairs, be attentive and thorough; in your dealings with others, be honest and conscientious. Never abandon these principles, even among savages. The Master said: The nobler sort of man is accommodating but not obsequious; the inferior sort is obsequious but not accommodating. The nobler sort of man is easy to serve yet difficult to please. Who seeks to please him in wrongful ways will not succeed. In exacting service from others, he takes account of aptitudes and limitations. The baser sort of man is difficult to serve yet easy to please. Who seeks to please him in any wrongful way will assuredly succeed. And he requires absolute perfection in those from whom he exacts service.
The nobler sort of man is dignified but not proud; the inferior man is proud but not dignified. Hsien said: To refrain from self-glorification, to subdue feelings of resentment, to control selfish desire--may this be held to constitute perfect virtue?--The Master said: These things may certainly be considered hard to achieve, but I am not so sure that they constitute perfect virtue.[26] The Master said: A man of inward virtue[27] will have virtuous words on his lips, but a man of virtuous words is not always a virtuous man. The man of perfect goodness[27b] is sure to possess courage, but the courageous man is not necessarily good. Can true love be anything but exacting? How can our sense of duty allow us to abstain from admonition? The nobler sort of man tends upwards; the baser sort tends downwards. The princely type of man is modest in his speech, but liberal in his performance. The princely man has three great virtues, which I cannot claim for myself. He is truly benevolent, and is free from care; he is truly wise, and is free from delusions; he is truly brave, and is free from fear.--Nay, replied Tzŭ Kung, these virtues are our Master's own.[27] The Master said: Is not he a sage who neither anticipates deceit nor suspects bad faith in others, yet is prompt to detect them when they appear?
Some one asked: How do you regard the principle of returning good for evil?--The Master said: What, then, is to be the return for good? Rather should you return justice for injustice, and good for good.[28] Tzŭ Lu asked about the conduct of the princely man.[29] The Master said: He cultivates himself so as to gain in self-respect.--Does he rest content with that?--He cultivates himself, was the reply, so as to give happiness to others.--And is he content with that?--He cultivates himself so as to confer peace and prosperity on the whole people. By self-cultivation to confer peace and prosperity on the whole people!--was not this the object which Yao and Shun still laboured to attain? Tzŭ Kung asked for advice on the practice of moral virtue. The Master replied: If an artisan wants to do his work well, he must begin by sharpening his tools. Even so, among the great men of your country, you should serve the wise and good, and make friends of men who have this moral virtue. The Master said: The higher type of man makes a sense of duty the groundwork of his character, blends with it in action a sense of harmonious proportion, manifests it in a spirit of unselfishness, and perfects it by the addition of sincerity and truth. Then indeed is he a noble character.
The higher type of man seeks all that he wants in himself; the inferior man seeks all that he wants from others. The higher type of man is firm but not quarrelsome; sociable, but not clannish. The wise man does not esteem a person more highly because of what he says, neither does he undervalue what is said because of the person who says it. Tzŭ Kung asked, saying: Is there any one maxim which ought to be acted upon throughout one's whole life?--The Master replied: Surely the maxim of charity[30] is such:--Do not unto others what you would not they should do unto you. The nobler sort of man pays special attention to nine points. He is anxious to see clearly, to hear distinctly, to be kindly in his looks, respectful in his demeanour, conscientious in his speech, earnest in his affairs; when in doubt, he is careful to inquire; when in anger, he thinks of the consequences; when offered an opportunity for gain, he thinks only of his duty. Tzŭ Chang asked Confucius a question about moral virtue. Confucius replied: Moral virtue simply consists in being able, anywhere and everywhere, to exercise five particular qualities. Asked what these were, he said: Self-respect, magnanimity, sincerity, earnestness and benevolence. Show self-respect, and others will respect you;[31] be magnanimous, and you will win all hearts; be sincere, and men will trust you; be earnest, and you will achieve great things; be benevolent, and you will be fit to impose your will on others.
Tzŭ Lu asked: Docs not the princely man[32] value courage?--The Master said: He puts righteousness first. The man of high station[33] who has courage without righteousness is a menace to the State; the common man who has courage without righteousness is nothing more than a brigand. Tzu Kung asked: Has the nobler sort of man any hatreds?--The Master replied: He has. He hates those who publish the faults of others; he hates men of low condition who vilify those above them; he hates those whose courage is unaccompanied by self-restraint; he hates those who are audacious but narrow-minded. And you, Tz‘ŭ, he added, have you also your hatreds?--I hate, replied the disciple, those who think that wisdom consists in prying and meddling; courage, in showing no compliance; and honesty, in denouncing other men. [1] This is the much-discussed _chün tzŭ_, an expression of which the stereotyped English equivalent is "the superior man." But in this there is, unhappily, a tinge of blended superciliousness and irony absolutely foreign to the native phrase, which in my opinion makes it unsuitable. "Princely man" is as nearly as possible the literal translation, and sometimes, as we shall see, it actually means "prince." But in the majority of cases the connotation of rank or authority is certainly not explicit, and as a general rendering I have preferred "the higher type of man," "the nobler sort of man," or sometimes more simply, "the good man." Perhaps the nearest approximation in any European language is to be found in the Greek ὁ καλὸς κἀγαθός, because that implies high mental and moral qualities combined with all the outward bearing of a gentleman. Compare also Aristotle's ὁ σπουδαἲος, who is however rather more abstract and ideal.
Ideas discussed in this chapter
Text from Project Gutenberg, public domain in the United States.