Opticks · Isaac Newton
_PROP._ VII. THEOR. VI.
_The Perfection of Telescopes is impeded by the different Refrangibility of the Rays of Light._ The Imperfection of Telescopes is vulgarly attributed to the spherical Figures of the Glasses, and therefore Mathematicians have propounded to figure them by the conical Sections. To shew that they are mistaken, I have inserted this Proposition; the truth of which will appear by the measure of the Refractions of the several sorts of Rays; and these measures I thus determine. In the third Experiment of this first Part, where the refracting Angle of the Prism was 62-1/2 Degrees, the half of that Angle 31 deg. 15 min. is the Angle of Incidence of the Rays at their going out of the Glass into the Air[F]; and the Sine of this Angle is 5188, the Radius being 10000. When the Axis of this Prism was parallel to the Horizon, and the Refraction of the Rays at their Incidence on this Prism equal to that at their Emergence out of it, I observed with a Quadrant the Angle which the mean refrangible Rays, (that is those which went to the middle of the Sun's coloured Image) made with the Horizon, and by this Angle and the Sun's altitude observed at the same time, I found the Angle which the emergent Rays contained with the incident to be 44 deg. and 40 min. and the half of this Angle added to the Angle of Incidence 31 deg. 15 min. makes the Angle of Refraction, which is therefore 53 deg. 35 min. and its Sine 8047. These are the Sines of Incidence and Refraction of the mean refrangible Rays, and their Proportion in round Numbers is 20 to 31. This Glass was of a Colour inclining to green. The last of the Prisms mentioned in the third Experiment was of clear white Glass. Its refracting Angle 63-1/2 Degrees. The Angle which the emergent Rays contained, with the incident 45 deg. 50 min. The Sine of half the first Angle 5262. The Sine of half the Sum of the Angles 8157. And their Proportion in round Numbers 20 to 31, as before.
From the Length of the Image, which was about 9-3/4 or 10 Inches, subduct its Breadth, which was 2-1/8 Inches, and the Remainder 7-3/4 Inches would be the Length of the Image were the Sun but a Point, and therefore subtends the Angle which the most and least refrangible Rays, when incident on the Prism in the same Lines, do contain with one another after their Emergence. Whence this Angle is 2 deg. 0'. 7''. For the distance between the Image and the Prism where this Angle is made, was 18-1/2 Feet, and at that distance the Chord 7-3/4 Inches subtends an Angle of 2 deg. 0'. 7''. Now half this Angle is the Angle which these emergent Rays contain with the emergent mean refrangible Rays, and a quarter thereof, that is 30'. 2''. may be accounted the Angle which they would contain with the same emergent mean refrangible Rays, were they co-incident to them within the Glass, and suffered no other Refraction than that at their Emergence. For, if two equal Refractions, the one at the Incidence of the Rays on the Prism, the other at their Emergence, make half the Angle 2 deg. 0'. 7''. then one of those Refractions will make about a quarter of that Angle, and this quarter added to, and subducted from the Angle of Refraction of the mean refrangible Rays, which was 53 deg. 35', gives the Angles of Refraction of the most and least refrangible Rays 54 deg. 5' 2'', and 53 deg. 4' 58'', whose Sines are 8099 and 7995, the common Angle of Incidence being 31 deg. 15', and its Sine 5188; and these Sines in the least round Numbers are in proportion to one another, as 78 and 77 to 50.
Now, if you subduct the common Sine of Incidence 50 from the Sines of Refraction 77 and 78, the Remainders 27 and 28 shew, that in small Refractions the Refraction of the least refrangible Rays is to the Refraction of the most refrangible ones, as 27 to 28 very nearly, and that the difference of the Refractions of the least refrangible and most refrangible Rays is about the 27-1/2th Part of the whole Refraction of the mean refrangible Rays. Whence they that are skilled in Opticks will easily understand,[G] that the Breadth of the least circular Space, into which Object-glasses of Telescopes can collect all sorts of Parallel Rays, is about the 27-1/2th Part of half the Aperture of the Glass, or 55th Part of the whole Aperture; and that the Focus of the most refrangible Rays is nearer to the Object-glass than the Focus of the least refrangible ones, by about the 27-1/2th Part of the distance between the Object-glass and the Focus of the mean refrangible ones. And if Rays of all sorts, flowing from any one lucid Point in the Axis of any convex Lens, be made by the Refraction of the Lens to converge to Points not too remote from the Lens, the Focus of the most refrangible Rays shall be nearer to the Lens than the Focus of the least refrangible ones, by a distance which is to the 27-1/2th Part of the distance of the Focus of the mean refrangible Rays from the Lens, as the distance between that Focus and the lucid Point, from whence the Rays flow, is to the distance between that lucid Point and the Lens very nearly.
Now to examine whether the Difference between the Refractions, which the most refrangible and the least refrangible Rays flowing from the same Point suffer in the Object-glasses of Telescopes and such-like Glasses, be so great as is here described, I contrived the following Experiment. _Exper._ 16. The Lens which I used in the second and eighth Experiments, being placed six Feet and an Inch distant from any Object, collected the Species of that Object by the mean refrangible Rays at the distance of six Feet and an Inch from the Lens on the other side. And therefore by the foregoing Rule, it ought to collect the Species of that Object by the least refrangible Rays at the distance of six Feet and 3-2/3 Inches from the Lens, and by the most refrangible ones at the distance of five Feet and 10-1/3 Inches from it: So that between the two Places, where these least and most refrangible Rays collect the Species, there may be the distance of about 5-1/3 Inches.
For by that Rule, as six Feet and an Inch (the distance of the Lens from the lucid Object) is to twelve Feet and two Inches (the distance of the lucid Object from the Focus of the mean refrangible Rays) that is, as One is to Two; so is the 27-1/2th Part of six Feet and an Inch (the distance between the Lens and the same Focus) to the distance between the Focus of the most refrangible Rays and the Focus of the least refrangible ones, which is therefore 5-17/55 Inches, that is very nearly 5-1/3 Inches. Now to know whether this Measure was true, I repeated the second and eighth Experiment with coloured Light, which was less compounded than that I there made use of: For I now separated the heterogeneous Rays from one another by the Method I described in the eleventh Experiment, so as to make a coloured Spectrum about twelve or fifteen Times longer than broad. This Spectrum I cast on a printed Book, and placing the above-mentioned Lens at the distance of six Feet and an Inch from this Spectrum to collect the Species of the illuminated Letters at the same distance on the other side, I found that the Species of the Letters illuminated with blue were nearer to the Lens than those illuminated with deep red by about three Inches, or three and a quarter; but the Species of the Letters illuminated with indigo and violet appeared so confused and indistinct, that I could not read them: Whereupon viewing the Prism, I found it was full of Veins running from one end of the Glass to the other; so that the Refraction could not be regular.
I took another Prism therefore which was free from Veins, and instead of the Letters I used two or three Parallel black Lines a little broader than the Strokes of the Letters, and casting the Colours upon these Lines in such manner, that the Lines ran along the Colours from one end of the Spectrum to the other, I found that the Focus where the indigo, or confine of this Colour and violet cast the Species of the black Lines most distinctly, to be about four Inches, or 4-1/4 nearer to the Lens than the Focus, where the deepest red cast the Species of the same black Lines most distinctly. The violet was so faint and dark, that I could not discern the Species of the Lines distinctly by that Colour; and therefore considering that the Prism was made of a dark coloured Glass inclining to green, I took another Prism of clear white Glass; but the Spectrum of Colours which this Prism made had long white Streams of faint Light shooting out from both ends of the Colours, which made me conclude that something was amiss; and viewing the Prism, I found two or three little Bubbles in the Glass, which refracted the Light irregularly.
Wherefore I covered that Part of the Glass with black Paper, and letting the Light pass through another Part of it which was free from such Bubbles, the Spectrum of Colours became free from those irregular Streams of Light, and was now such as I desired. But still I found the violet so dark and faint, that I could scarce see the Species of the Lines by the violet, and not at all by the deepest Part of it, which was next the end of the Spectrum. I suspected therefore, that this faint and dark Colour might be allayed by that scattering Light which was refracted, and reflected irregularly, partly by some very small Bubbles in the Glasses, and partly by the Inequalities of their Polish; which Light, tho' it was but little, yet it being of a white Colour, might suffice to affect the Sense so strongly as to disturb the Phaenomena of that weak and dark Colour the violet, and therefore I tried, as in the 12th, 13th, and 14th Experiments, whether the Light of this Colour did not consist of a sensible Mixture of heterogeneous Rays, but found it did not.
Nor did the Refractions cause any other sensible Colour than violet to emerge out of this Light, as they would have done out of white Light, and by consequence out of this violet Light had it been sensibly compounded with white Light. And therefore I concluded, that the reason why I could not see the Species of the Lines distinctly by this Colour, was only the Darkness of this Colour, and Thinness of its Light, and its distance from the Axis of the Lens; I divided therefore those Parallel black Lines into equal Parts, by which I might readily know the distances of the Colours in the Spectrum from one another, and noted the distances of the Lens from the Foci of such Colours, as cast the Species of the Lines distinctly, and then considered whether the difference of those distances bear such proportion to 5-1/3 Inches, the greatest Difference of the distances, which the Foci of the deepest red and violet ought to have from the Lens, as the distance of the observed Colours from one another in the Spectrum bear to the greatest distance of the deepest red and violet measured in the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, that is, to the Length of those Sides, or Excess of the Length of the Spectrum above its Breadth. And my Observations were as follows.
When I observed and compared the deepest sensible red, and the Colour in the Confine of green and blue, which at the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum was distant from it half the Length of those Sides, the Focus where the Confine of green and blue cast the Species of the Lines distinctly on the Paper, was nearer to the Lens than the Focus, where the red cast those Lines distinctly on it by about 2-1/2 or 2-3/4 Inches. For sometimes the Measures were a little greater, sometimes a little less, but seldom varied from one another above 1/3 of an Inch. For it was very difficult to define the Places of the Foci, without some little Errors. Now, if the Colours distant half the Length of the Image, (measured at its Rectilinear Sides) give 2-1/2 or 2-3/4 Difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens, then the Colours distant the whole Length ought to give 5 or 5-1/2 Inches difference of those distances.
But here it's to be noted, that I could not see the red to the full end of the Spectrum, but only to the Center of the Semicircle which bounded that end, or a little farther; and therefore I compared this red not with that Colour which was exactly in the middle of the Spectrum, or Confine of green and blue, but with that which verged a little more to the blue than to the green: And as I reckoned the whole Length of the Colours not to be the whole Length of the Spectrum, but the Length of its Rectilinear Sides, so compleating the semicircular Ends into Circles, when either of the observed Colours fell within those Circles, I measured the distance of that Colour from the semicircular End of the Spectrum, and subducting half this distance from the measured distance of the two Colours, I took the Remainder for their corrected distance; and in these Observations set down this corrected distance for the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens. For, as the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum would be the whole Length of all the Colours, were the Circles of which (as we shewed) that Spectrum consists contracted and reduced to Physical Points, so in that Case this corrected distance would be the real distance of the two observed Colours.
When therefore I farther observed the deepest sensible red, and that blue whose corrected distance from it was 7/12 Parts of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens was about 3-1/4 Inches, and as 7 to 12, so is 3-1/4 to 5-4/7. When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that indigo whose corrected distance was 8/12 or 2/3 of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens, was about 3-2/3 Inches, and as 2 to 3, so is 3-2/3 to 5-1/2. When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that deep indigo whose corrected distance from one another was 9/12 or 3/4 of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens was about 4 Inches; and as 3 to 4, so is 4 to 5-1/3.
When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that Part of the violet next the indigo, whose corrected distance from the red was 10/12 or 5/6 of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens was about 4-1/2 Inches, and as 5 to 6, so is 4-1/2 to 5-2/5. For sometimes, when the Lens was advantageously placed, so that its Axis respected the blue, and all Things else were well ordered, and the Sun shone clear, and I held my Eye very near to the Paper on which the Lens cast the Species of the Lines, I could see pretty distinctly the Species of those Lines by that Part of the violet which was next the indigo; and sometimes I could see them by above half the violet, For in making these Experiments I had observed, that the Species of those Colours only appear distinct, which were in or near the Axis of the Lens: So that if the blue or indigo were in the Axis, I could see their Species distinctly; and then the red appeared much less distinct than before. Wherefore I contrived to make the Spectrum of Colours shorter than before, so that both its Ends might be nearer to the Axis of the Lens. And now its Length was about 2-1/2 Inches, and Breadth about 1/5 or 1/6 of an Inch. Also instead of the black Lines on which the Spectrum was cast, I made one black Line broader than those, that I might see its Species more easily; and this Line I divided by short cross Lines into equal Parts, for measuring the distances of the observed Colours. And now I could sometimes see the Species of this Line with its Divisions almost as far as the Center of the semicircular violet End of the Spectrum, and made these farther Observations.
When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that Part of the violet, whose corrected distance from it was about 8/9 Parts of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the Difference of the distances of the Foci of those Colours from the Lens, was one time 4-2/3, another time 4-3/4, another time 4-7/8 Inches; and as 8 to 9, so are 4-2/3, 4-3/4, 4-7/8, to 5-1/4, 5-11/32, 5-31/64 respectively. When I observed the deepest sensible red, and deepest sensible violet, (the corrected distance of which Colours, when all Things were ordered to the best Advantage, and the Sun shone very clear, was about 11/12 or 15/16 Parts of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the coloured Spectrum) I found the Difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens sometimes 4-3/4 sometimes 5-1/4, and for the most part 5 Inches or thereabouts; and as 11 to 12, or 15 to 16, so is five Inches to 5-2/2 or 5-1/3 Inches. And by this Progression of Experiments I satisfied my self, that had the Light at the very Ends of the Spectrum been strong enough to make the Species of the black Lines appear plainly on the Paper, the Focus of the deepest violet would have been found nearer to the Lens, than the Focus of the deepest red, by about 5-1/3 Inches at least. And this is a farther Evidence, that the Sines of Incidence and Refraction of the several sorts of Rays, hold the same Proportion to one another in the smallest Refractions which they do in the greatest.
My Progress in making this nice and troublesome Experiment I have set down more at large, that they that shall try it after me may be aware of the Circumspection requisite to make it succeed well. And if they cannot make it succeed so well as I did, they may notwithstanding collect by the Proportion of the distance of the Colours of the Spectrum, to the Difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens, what would be the Success in the more distant Colours by a better trial. And yet, if they use a broader Lens than I did, and fix it to a long strait Staff, by means of which it may be readily and truly directed to the Colour whose Focus is desired, I question not but the Experiment will succeed better with them than it did with me. For I directed the Axis as nearly as I could to the middle of the Colours, and then the faint Ends of the Spectrum being remote from the Axis, cast their Species less distinctly on the Paper than they would have done, had the Axis been successively directed to them.
Now by what has been said, it's certain that the Rays which differ in Refrangibility do not converge to the same Focus; but if they flow from a lucid Point, as far from the Lens on one side as their Foci are on the other, the Focus of the most refrangible Rays shall be nearer to the Lens than that of the least refrangible, by above the fourteenth Part of the whole distance; and if they flow from a lucid Point, so very remote from the Lens, that before their Incidence they may be accounted parallel, the Focus of the most refrangible Rays shall be nearer to the Lens than the Focus of the least refrangible, by about the 27th or 28th Part of their whole distance from it. And the Diameter of the Circle in the middle Space between those two Foci which they illuminate, when they fall there on any Plane, perpendicular to the Axis (which Circle is the least into which they can all be gathered) is about the 55th Part of the Diameter of the Aperture of the Glass. So that 'tis a wonder, that Telescopes represent Objects so distinct as they do.
But were all the Rays of Light equally refrangible, the Error arising only from the Sphericalness of the Figures of Glasses would be many hundred times less. For, if the Object-glass of a Telescope be Plano-convex, and the Plane side be turned towards the Object, and the Diameter of the Sphere, whereof this Glass is a Segment, be called D, and the Semi-diameter of the Aperture of the Glass be called S, and the Sine of Incidence out of Glass into Air, be to the Sine of Refraction as I to R; the Rays which come parallel to the Axis of the Glass, shall in the Place where the Image of the Object is most distinctly made, be scattered all over a little Circle, whose Diameter is _(Rq/Iq) x (S cub./D quad.)_ very nearly,[H] as I gather by computing the Errors of the Rays by the Method of infinite Series, and rejecting the Terms, whose Quantities are inconsiderable.
As for instance, if the Sine of Incidence I, be to the Sine of Refraction R, as 20 to 31, and if D the Diameter of the Sphere, to which the Convex-side of the Glass is ground, be 100 Feet or 1200 Inches, and S the Semi-diameter of the Aperture be two Inches, the Diameter of the little Circle, (that is (_Rq x S cub.)/(Iq x D quad._)) will be (31 x 31 x 8)/(20 x 20 x 1200 x 1200) (or 961/72000000) Parts of an Inch. But the Diameter of the little Circle, through which these Rays are scattered by unequal Refrangibility, will be about the 55th Part of the Aperture of the Object-glass, which here is four Inches. And therefore, the Error arising from the Spherical Figure of the Glass, is to the Error arising from the different Refrangibility of the Rays, as 961/72000000 to 4/55, that is as 1 to 5449; and therefore being in comparison so very little, deserves not to be considered.
But you will say, if the Errors caused by the different Refrangibility be so very great, how comes it to pass, that Objects appear through Telescopes so distinct as they do? I answer, 'tis because the erring Rays are not scattered uniformly over all that Circular Space, but collected infinitely more densely in the Center than in any other Part of the Circle, and in the Way from the Center to the Circumference, grow continually rarer and rarer, so as at the Circumference to become infinitely rare; and by reason of their Rarity are not strong enough to be visible, unless in the Center and very near it. Let ADE [in _Fig._ 27.] represent one of those Circles described with the Center C, and Semi-diameter AC, and let BFG be a smaller Circle concentrick to the former, cutting with its Circumference the Diameter AC in B, and bisect AC in N; and by my reckoning, the Density of the Light in any Place B, will be to its Density in N, as AB to BC; and the whole Light within the lesser Circle BFG, will be to the whole Light within the greater AED, as the Excess of the Square of AC above the Square of AB, is to the Square of AC. As if BC be the fifth Part of AC, the Light will be four times denser in B than in N, and the whole Light within the less Circle, will be to the whole Light within the greater, as nine to twenty-five. Whence it's evident, that the Light within the less Circle, must strike the Sense much more strongly, than that faint and dilated Light round about between it and the Circumference of the greater.
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