Principles of Political Economy · John Stuart Mill

FOOTNOTES

54 He has also published “Social Economy” (1872); a small “Manual of Political Economy” (third edition, 1878); and a very considerable work, “Six Centuries of Work and Wages: the History of English Labor,” 1250-1883 (1884). He has edited Adam Smith’s “Wealth of Nations,” and written “Cobden and Modern Political Opinion” (1873), and “The Colonial Question,” in the Cobden Club Essays (1872). 55 Of other books, mention should be made of G. J. Goschen’s most admirable “Theory of Foreign Exchanges” (eighth edition, 1875); “Reports and Speeches on Local Taxation” (1872); T. Brassey’s “Work and Wages” (third edition, 1883); E. Seyd, “Bullion and the Foreign Exchanges” (1868); H. D. McLeod, an eccentric writer, “Dictionary of Political Economy” (only one vol., A-C, 1863, published); and “Theory and Practice of Banking” (second edition, 1875-1876); H. Sidgwick, “Principles of Political Economy” (1883); J. Caird, “Landed Interest” (fourth edition, 1880); L. Levi, “History of British Commerce” (1872).

56 Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850) began life in a commercial house at Bayonne, but gained notice first by an article, “De l’influence des tarifs français et anglais sur l’avenir des deux peuples,” in the “Journal des Économistes” of 1844, and consequently had a very short period of literary activity. The corn-law agitation in England and the revolutionary movement of 1848 led him to write chiefly against protection and socialism. He translated Cobden’s speeches, “Cobden et la Ligue” (1845). His arguments against protection, “Sophismes économiques” (1846-1847), have been translated and published in this country; but the more extended exposition of his doctrine of value diminishing with the growth of civilization, and the harmony of all interests is in the “Harmonies économiques” (1850). In this his position is not much different from Carey’s. His other books were “Capital et rente” (1849), directed against gratuitous loans; “Protectionisme et communisme” (1849), showing protection to be communism for the rich; “Propriété et loi” (1848), directed against socialism; and “Essais sur l’économie politique” (1853); “Le Libre-échange” (1855). “Œuvres complètes,” 7 tom. (1855-1864). 57 Carey, however, claimed, with probable truth, that Bastiat borrowed the idea from him, and Bastiat did not appear well in the controversy. Almost no one has followed the French writer in his theory except Professor A. L. Perry, of Williams College, Massachusetts, who has shaped his general argument according to this view of value. Also see Cairnes, “Essays in Political Economy,” p. 312.

58 Chevalier (1806-1879) first drew attention in an experiment of Saint-Simonism in 1830-1833. After traveling in the United States, and writing excellent books on the country and its railways, he became professor in the Collége de France, where his lectures were collected in a “Cours d’économie politique” (1842-1850; second edition, 1855-1866). His third volume, “La Monnaie,” is a standard treatise on money, with an extensive bibliography. His treatise “Examen du système commerciale connu sous le nom de système protecteur” (1851) is now somewhat out of date. In his book “De la Baisse, probable de l’or” (1859), translated by Richard Cobden, he held that, unless prevented, gold would drive out the French currency, as against Faucher, who thought the fall temporary, and would progressively diminish. Other books are, “De l’industrie manufacturière en France,” and “La liberté du travail” (1848). 59 Émile Levasseur (born 1828) was professor at Alençon, 1852-1854, and elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1868. He has published “Récherches historiques sur le système de Law” (1854); “La question de l’or” (1858); “Histoire des classes ouvrières en France depuis la conquête de Jules César jusqu’à la révolution” (1859); the same history continued, “Depuis 1789 jusqu’à nos jours” (1867); “La France industriale” (1865); “Cours d’économie rurale, la France et ses colonies” (1868); “Précis d’économie politique” (fourth edition, 1883).

60 Born in Berlin in 1816, but since 1821 living in France. He was long connected with the Bureau de Statistique Générale, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, but in 1861 he left office and gave himself wholly to private work. In this year he received the Montyon prize for statistics, not given since 1857. His chief books are: “Des charges de l’agriculture dans les divers pays de l’Europe” (1850), a work crowned by the Institute; “Statistique de la France, comparée avec les divers états de l’Europe” (1860); “Le dictionnaire de l’administration française” (second edition, 1878); “Les finances de la France depuis 1815” (1863); “Les théoriciens du socialisme en Allemagne” (1872); and in connection with M. Guillaumin, “L’annuaire de l’économie politique,” since 1856. 61 Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui _ainé_ (1798-1854) in 1833 succeeded to the chair of J. B. Say in the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, and was one of the founders of the “Journal des économistes.” Besides his “Histoire de l’économie politique en l’Europe” (1837-1852), he published a “Résumé de l’histoire du commerce et de l’industrie” (1826); “Précis élémentaire d’économie politique” (1826); “Rapports, histoire de l’exposition des produits de l’industrie française en 1827” (1827); “Cours d’economie politique” (2 vols., 1837-1838), and notices of Huskisson and J. B. Say.

62 Louis Wolowski (1810-1876), of Polish origin, was Chevalier’s chief antagonist, and Professor of Legislation at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers (1839); founded the first Crédit Foncier of Paris, and was elected to the Institute in the place of Blanqui. In 1875 he was chosen senator. He was a fertile writer: “Mobilisation du Crédit Foncier” (1839); “De l’organisation du travail” (1846); “Études de l’économie politique et de statistique” (1848); “Henri IV, économiste, introduction de l’industrie de la soie en France” (1855); “Introduction de l’économie politique en Italie” (1859); “Les finances de la Russie” (1864); “La question des banques” (1864); his testimony in the “Enquête sur les principes et les faits généraux qui régissent la circulation monétaire et fiduciaire” (1866); “La banque d’Angleterre et les banques d’Écosse” (1867); “La liberté commerciale et les résultats du traité de commerce de 1860” (1868); “L’or et l’argent” (1870); “La change et la circulation”; and a translation of Roscher. 63 Hippolyte-Philibert Passy (1793-1880) was educated for the army, and served at Waterloo. He was more prominent as a statesman than as an economist. In 1838 he entered the Academy in the place of Talleyrand, but politics left him unoccupied, and he wrote “Des systèmes de culture et de leur influence sur l’économie sociale” (1846), and “Des causes de l’inégalité des richesses” (1849). 64 M. Léonce de Lavergne (1809-1880) came from Toulouse to Paris in 1840, elected deputy in 1846, a member of the Institute in 1855, and became professor in the Institut agronomique of Versailles. He was also the author of “L’économie rurale de l’Angleterre, de l’Écosse, et de l’Irlande” (1854), translated into English (1855); “L’agriculture et la population” (1857), a striking confirmation of Malthusianism; “Les économistes françaises du dixhuitième siècle” (1870). He also has contributed largely to the “Revue des Deux Mondes” and the “Journal des Économistes.” For a personal sketch by Cliffe Leslie, see “Fortnightly Review,” February, 1881.

65 Born at Geneva, 1797, and died at Zurich, 1869. After studying law, he became an advocate, and in 1833 Professor of Law in the place of Rossi. In 1837 he was made Professor of Political Economy and Public Law at Geneva. He was also a member of the Swiss Grand Council. Besides his treatise, he wrote: “Richesse ou pauvreté” (1840); “Le socialisme, c’est la barbarie” (1848); “Études sur les causes de la misère” (1853); and aided in the “Dictionnaire de l’économie politique.” 66 J. G. Courcelle-Seneuil (born 1813) left a commercial career to become a writer, first for the journals, and later for the “Dictionnaire politique” (edited by Pagnerre). In 1848 he was connected with the Ministry of Finance, and called to a professorship of Political Economy in Santiago, Chili, 1853-1863. His chief work is a “Traité théorique et pratique d’économie politique” (1858), but he has also published “La crédit de banque” (1840), reforms for the bank of France; “Traité des opérations de banque” (1852; sixth edition, 1876); “Traité des entreprises industrielles, commerciales, et agricoles” (1854); “Études sur la science sociale” (1862); “Leçons élémentaires d’économie politique” (1864); “La banque libre” (1867); “Liberté et socialisme” (1868); and articles in the “Dictionnaire de l’économie politique.” 67 Died 1862; author of “De la liberté du travail” (1845). 68 Professor of Political Economy at the Collége de France, author of an extended and able “Traité de la science des finances” (third edition, 1883). He has also published “De l’état moral et intellectual des populations ouvrières et de son influence sur le taux des salaires” (1868); “Récherches economiques, historiques, et statistiques sur les guerres contemporaines” (1869); “La question ouvrière au XIX siècle” (second edition, 1882); “L’administration locale en France et en Angleterre” (1872); “Le travail des femmes au XIX siècle” (1873); “Essai sur la répartition des richesses” (1880; second edition, 1883); and “De la colonisation chez les peuples modernes” (1882).

69 He published two volumes on Socialism (see list of books p. 44). In several volumes on the “Régime des manufactures” he described the condition of the silk, woolen, cotton, and iron industries. 70 The most vigorous advocate of monometallism in France. He also wrote well on taxation, “Traité des impôts” (4 vols., 1866-1867). 71 His “Rapport sur l’indemnité du guerre” to the Corps Législatif gives the account of the most marvelous exchange operation of modern times, arising from the payment of the indemnity by France to Germany (1871-1873). 72 An advocate of the mathematical method. 73 Founded in 1863, published at Berlin, and edited by Dr. Eduard Wiss. 74 Long Secretary to the Chamber of Commerce at Hamburg, and now honorary professor at Göttingen. 75 Professor of Political Economy at Zürich in 1866, since 1875 director of statistics at Dresden, and editor of “Der Arbeiterfreund.” He made a valuable study of industrial partnerships, “Die Gewinnbetheiligung” (second edition 1878). He also wrote “Freiheit der Arbeit” (1858), and “Beiträge zur geschichte des Zunftwesens” (1861). 76 His most important work is “Das Armenwesen und die Armengesetzebung in Europäischen Staaten” (1870). Selected essays from this have been translated into English by E. B. Eastwick, “Poor Relief in Different Parts of Europe” (1873). 77 Max Wirth is at Vienna, and has devoted himself to a “Geschichte der Handelskrisen” (1874), including the crisis of 1873. Baron von Hock has written a history of the finances of France, and of the United States—“Die Finanzen und die Finanzgeschichte der vereinigten Staaten von Amerika” (1867).

78 This book has been translated into English by G. A. Matile, with notes by Stephen Colwell (1856). 79 Mohl on administration, and Rau and A. Wagner on finance, also deserve mention. Stein, besides other works, is the author of a handbook, “Die Verwaltungslehre” (1870). 80 “Fortnightly Review” (1876). 81 In Ely’s “The Past and Present of Political Economy” (p. 9) it is clear the new school do not differ so much in reality as in seeming from the methods of the English writers, like Cairnes. 82 The first division of Roscher’s (born 1817) treatise, also known under the title of “Grundlagen der Nationalökonomie,” has been translated here by J. J. Lalor, in two volumes, “Principles of Political Economy” (1878), with an essay by Wolowski on the historical method inserted. In 1840 he was made _Privat-Docent_ at Göttingen, and professor extraordinary in 1843. In 1844 he was called to a chair at Erlangen, but since 1848 he has remained at Leipsic. A list of Roscher’s works is as follows: “Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die Staatswirthschaft nach geschichtlicher Methode” (1843); “Kornhandel und Theuerungspolitik” (third edition, 1852); “Untersuchungen über das Colonialwesen”; “Verhältniss der Nationalökonomie zum klassischen Alterthume” (1849); “Geschichte der englischen Volkswirthschaftslehre im 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts”; “Ein nationalökonom. Princep der Forstwirthschaft”; “Ansichten der Volkswirthschaft aus dem geschichtlichen Standpunkte” (second edition, 1861); “Die deutsche Nationalökonomie an der Grenzscheide des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts” (1862); “Gründungsgeschichte des Zollvereins” (1870); “Betrachtungen über die Währungsfrage der deutschen Müntzreform” (1872); “Geschichte der Nationalökonomie in Deutschland” (1874); “Nationalökonomie des Ackerbaues” (eighth edition, 1875). His histories of political economy in England and Germany are particularly valuable (see review by Cliffe Leslie, “Fortnightly Review,” July, 1875). But he does not rightly estimate the English writers when he takes McLeod as a type; and Carey is the only American to whom he refers.

83 Professor at Marburg, then at the University of Friedburg, in Breisgau, and now at Heidelberg. He has also studied railways (1853), and telegraphs (1857), and money and credit, “Geld und Credit” (1873-1879). 84 Died 1878. He devoted himself mainly to criticism of other systems, and seems to be the least able of the three. 85 “Catheder-Socialisten,” or “Professional Socialists.” 86 By far the ablest is Adolph Wagner, of Berlin, editor of Rau’s “Lehrbuch der politischen Oekonomie” (1872). He also published “Die russische Papierwährung” (1868); “Staatspapiergeld, Reichs-Kassen Scheine, und Banknoten” (1874); “Unsere Müntzreform” (1877); “Finanzwissenschaft” (1877); and “Die Communalsteuerfrage” (1878). Dr. Eduard Engel was formerly the head of the Prussian Bureau of Statistics. Professor Gustav Schönberg, of Tübingen, with the assistance of twenty-one other economists, produced a large “Handbuch der politischen Oekonomie” (1882). The school have expressed their peculiar doctrines in the “Zeitschrift für die gesammte Staatswissenschaft” (quarterly, founded 1844, Tübingen), and the “Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie” (established at Jena, 1863). Also, see A. Wagner’s “Rede über die sociale Frage” (1872), H. v. Scheel’s “Die Theorie der socialen Frage” (1871), and G. Schmoller’s “Ueber einige Grundfrage des Rects und der Volkswirthschaft” (1875). A. E. F. Schäffle, once Minister of Commerce at Vienna, gained considerable reputation by “Das gesellschaftliche System der menschlichen Wirthschaft” (third edition, 1873).

87 Émile de Laveleye (born 1822) studied law at Ghent, but since 1848 has given himself up to political economy and public questions. Through the pages of the “Revue des Deux Mondes” he gained attention in 1863, and the next year was made Professor of Political Economy at the University of Liége. In 1869 he received an election as corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. While a fertile writer on political subjects, he has produced “La question d’or” (1860); “Essai sur l’économie rurale de la Belgique” (1863); a study on “Suisse,” see “Revue des Deux Mondes,” April 15, 1863; “Études d’économie rurale, la Neerlande” (1864); “La marché monetaire depuis cinquante ans” (1865); “Land Systems of Belgium and Holland,” in the Cobden Club volume on “Land Tenures” (1870); “Bi-metallic Money,” translated by G. Walker (1877); “La socialisme contemporaine” (1881); “Éléments d’économie politique” (1882), which satisfies a certain modern demand for “ethical political economy.”

88 Leslie found support in a well-known paper read before the Association for the Advancement of Science (see “London Statistical Journal,” December, 1878; also see “Penn Monthly,” 1879), by J. K. Ingram, who claimed that the old school isolated the study of economic from other social phenomena, and that Ricardo’s system was not only too abstract, but that its conclusions were of so absolute a character that they were little adapted for real use. Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) replied to Leslie and Ingram (“Nineteenth Century,” November, 1878). For most of this literature it will be necessary to consult the magazines. Cliffe Leslie, “Fortnightly Review” (November, 1870), placed Adam Smith among the inductive economists; D. Syme attacked the old methods, “Westminster Review,” vol. xcvi (1871); Cairnes represented the old school, and discussed the new theories, “Political Economy and Comte,” in the “Fortnightly Review,” vol. xiii, p. 579 (1870), “Political Economy and Laissez Faire,” vol. xvi, p. 80 (1871), and in 1872; see also his admirable “Logical Method”; F. Harrison discussed the limits of political economy, ibid. (1865), and answered Cairnes in an article on “Cairnes on Political Economy and M. Comte,” “Fortnightly Review,” vol. xiv, p. 39 (1870). W. Newmarch gave attention to Ingram’s paper, “Statistical Journal” (1871).

Leslie, “Fortnightly Review” (1875), and G. Cohn, ibid. (1873), wrote on political economy in Germany. Leslie also contributed an article on “Political Economy and Sociology,” “Fortnightly Review,” vol. xxxi, p. 25 (1879), and the “Bicentenary of Political Economy,” in the “Bankers’ Magazine,” vol. xxxii, p. 29. Leslie examined the philosophical method, “Penn Monthly” (1877); Jevons saw the only hope for the future in the mathematical method, “Fortnightly Review” (1876); McLeod asks, “What is political economy?” in the “Contemporary Review” (1875); Maurice Block entered the discussion, “Penn Monthly” (1877), and “Bankers’ Magazine,” March and November, 1878. Henry Sidgwick answers Leslie in a paper on “Economic Method,” in the “Fortnightly Review,” vol. xxxi (1879), p. 301. See also essay by Wolowski prefixed to Roscher’s “Political Economy” (English translation); Roscher’s own statement in Chapters II and III of the Introduction to his “Political Economy,” and Laveleye’s “New Tendencies of Political Economy” (1879). See also “Penn Monthly,” vol. vii, p. 190, and “Bankers’ Magazine,” vol. xxxiii, pp. 601, 698, 761; vol. xxxvi, pp. 349, 422; S. Newcomb for an admirable essay “On the Method and Province of Political Economy,” “North American Review” (1875), vol. cxxi, p. 241, in which the “Orthodox” method is strongly supported; and an extreme position in favor of the historical method in a pamphlet, “The Past and Present of Political Economy,” by R. T. Ely (1884).

89 Daniel Raymond, “The Elements of Political Economy” (1820). Thomas Cooper, “Lectures on the Elements of Political Economy” (1826); “A Manual of Political Economy” (1834). Willard Phillips, “A Manual of Political Economy” (1828); “Propositions concerning Protection and Free Trade” (1860). President Francis Wayland (1796-1865), “The Elements of Political Economy” (1837). Henry Vethake, “Principles of Political Economy” (1838). From 1840 to the civil war there appeared F. Bowen’s “Principles of Political Economy” (1856), since changed to “American Political Economy” (1873), which opposed the Malthusian doctrine and defended protection; John Bascom’s “Political Economy” (1859); and Stephen Colwell’s “Ways and Means of Payment” (1859). After the war, “Science of Wealth” (1866), by Amasa Walker, a lecturer in Amherst College, and father of F. A. Walker. 90 Prof. C. F. Dunbar, “North American Review,” January, 1876, in an admirable review of economic science in America during the last century (1776-1876). 91 See _supra_, p. 16. 92 Carey (1793-1879) was the son of an Irish exile, and began a business career at the age of twelve. At twenty-eight he was the leading partner in the publishing firm of Carey & Lea, Philadelphia, from which he retired in 1835, to devote himself wholly to political economy. His leading works have been translated into French, Italian, Portuguese, German, Swedish, Russian, Magyar, and Japanese. He has written thirteen octavo volumes, three thousand pages in pamphlet form, and twice that amount for the newspaper press. See “Proceedings of the American Academy of Science” (1881-1882, p. 417), and W. Elder’s “Memoir of Henry C. Carey” (January 5, 1880). The latter gives a list of his books.

93 Bastiat’s “Harmonies économiques” appeared in 1850, and the question of his indebtedness to Carey was discussed, rather unfavorably to Bastiat, in a series of letters in the “Journal des économistes” for 1851. 94 See an able study, by Adolphe Held, “Carey’s Socialwissenschaft und das Merkantilsystem” (1866). 95 His system appears also in the books of disciples: E. Peshine Smith, “A Manual of Political Economy” (1853), William Elder’s “Questions of the Day” (1871), and of Robert E. Thompson’s “Social Science and National Economy” (1875). A condensation of Carey’s “Social Science” has been made by Kate McKean, in one volume, octavo. 96 The son of Amasa Walker, and formerly Professor of Political Economy and History in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College, he has become well known for his statistical work in connection with the United States census. His “Statistical Atlas of the United States” (1874) is unequaled. He has also published “Money” (1878); “Money, Trade, and Industry” (1879); “Political Economy” (1883); and “Land and Rent” (1884). The last book replies to various attacks on Ricardo’s doctrine of rent, and particularly to Henry George’s “Progress and Poverty.” General Walker in 1883 became President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston. He is also well known as an advocate of bimetallism. 97 Professor of Political and Social Science in Yale College, and author of a “History of American Currency” (1874); “Lectures on the History of Protection in the United States” (1877); “What Social Classes owe to Each Other” (1883). He is a monometallist, and has devoted himself vigorously to the advocacy of free trade. His last book is a study in sociology, not in political economy.

98 He has written “Political Economy” (eighteenth edition, 1883), and also “Introduction to Political Economy,” an elementary work on the same basis as the former. 99 Henry George was born in Philadelphia, 1839, ran away to sea, and in 1857 entered a printing-office in San Francisco. In 1871 he was one of the founders of the “San Francisco Post,” which he gave up in 1875, and received a public office. He first began to agitate his views in a pamphlet entitled “Our Land and Land Policy” (1871), but not until the comparative leisure of his occupation (1875) gave him opportunity did he seriously begin the study which resulted in his “Progress and Poverty.” This volume was begun in the summer of 1877, and finished in the spring of 1879. The sale of the book, it is needless to say, has been phenomenal. He has also applied his doctrine of land to Ireland, in a pamphlet entitled “The Irish Land Question” (1882). His last book is a collection of essays entitled “Social Problems” (1884). His home is now in New York. 100 Cf. p. 4, _supra_. 101 Bowen, “American Political Economy,” p. 25. 102 This is the beginning of Chapter II in the original treatise. 103 This is his “sacrifice,” which corresponds to the exertion of the laborer. 104 See Roscher’s note 1, section 42, for various definitions of capital.

105 General Walker (“Political Economy,” Part II, Chap. iv) adopts the same position, although seemingly inconsistent with his doctrine on the rate of wages. The “rate of wages” is, however, a different thing from the source of a laborer’s subsistence. See Book II, Chapter II, § 2. 106 The opinion mentioned above in the text is that of the believers in over-production, of whom the most distinguished are Mr. Malthus, Dr. Chalmers, and Sismondi. 107 Page 371, English translation, N. Y. (1871). 108 Edward Atkinson, “Labor and Capital, Allies not Enemies,” p. 60. 109 Cf. Bowen, “American Political Economy,” p. 399. 110 The functions of money are discussed later in the volume, and it is not proposed to unfold them here. 111 See, for the argument that machinery necessarily injures labor, “Land and Labor,” William Godwin Moody (1883); and for the answer, “North American Review,” May, 1884, p. 510. 112 Edward Atkinson, “Labor and Capital, Allies not Enemies,” p. 33. 113 See book iv, chap. iv. 114 See Mr. Babbage’s “Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.” 115 Book i, chap. iv, § 6. 116 Constant use of the same muscles, as by gold-beaters or writers, very often produces paralysis. 117 Hearn’s “Plutology,” p. 279. 118 Cairnes, “Leading Principles,” pp. 299, 300. 119 “American Political Economy,” p. 134. See also an article, “Malthusianism, Darwinism, and Pessimism,” “North American Review,” November, 1879.

120 See Cairnes, “Logical Method,” pp. 170-177. 121 See also Walker’s “Wages Question,” chap. vi, and Roscher, “Political Economy,” book v, chaps. i, ii, iii. 122 See Galton’s “Hereditary Genius,” p. 131-135. 123 See also Edward Jarvis, “Atlantic Monthly,” 1872, and F. A. Walker, “Social Science Journal,” vol. v, 1873, p. 71. For other literature, see “Sketch of the History of Political Economy,” p. 16. 124 This is the “preventive check” of Mr. Malthus, while the limitation through war, starvation, etc., is the “positive check.” 125 This is fully confirmed by the inaugural address of Mr. Giffen as President of the London Statistical Society, November 20, 1883, _infra_, book iv, chap. v, § 1. (See the London “Statistical Journal,” 1883.) 126 See Lavergne’s “Agriculture et Population,” pp. 305-316. 127 For tables of relative births and deaths, see “Statesman’s Year-Book,” p. 253. 128 This and the subsequent quotations are taken by Mr. Mill from Rae’s “New Principles of Political Economy.” 129 “International Review,” article “Colonization,” 1881, p. 88. See H. V. Redfield, “Homicide North and South,” 1880. 130 “Letters from America,” by John Robert Godley, vol. i. p. 42. See also Lyell’s “Travels in America,” vol. ii, p. 83.—Mill. 131 Cf. “American Agriculture,” “Princeton Review,” May, 1882, by F. A. Walker. 132 “Social Science,” vol. iii, p. 19. 133 “Notes on North America,” 1851, vol. ii, pp. 116, 117.

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